生态学的一些概念英文版

ECOLOGY\nEcology:thestudyoftheinteractionsoflivingthingswitheachotherandtheirphysicalenvironment\nEcologicalOrganization:Population:allthemembersofaspeciesinhabitingagivenlocationCommunity:alltheinteractingpopulationsinagivenareaEcosystem:thelivingcommunityandthephysicalenvironmentfunctioningtogetherasanindependentandrelativelystablesystem\n4.Biosphere:thatportionoftheearthwherelifeexistsa.Thebiosphereiscomposedofnumerouscomplexecosystems.b.Anecosysteminvolvesinteractionsbetweenabiotic(physical)andbiotic(living)factors.Themembersofthecommunityintheecosystemandenvironmentmustinteracttomaintainabalance.\n\nAnecosystemisself-sustainingifthefollowingrequirementsaremet:1.Aconstantsourceofenergyandalivingsystemcapableofincorporatingthisenergyintoorganicmolecules.2.Acyclingofmaterialsbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironment.\nInallenvironments,organismswithsimilarneedsmaycompetewitheachotherforresources,includingfood,space,water,air,andshelter.\nAbioticfactors:thosephysicalandchemicalfactorswhichaffecttheabilityoforganismstosurviveandreproduce\nSomeAbioticFactors:1.intensityoflight2.rangeoftemperatures3.amountofmoisture4.typeofsubstratum(soilorrocktype)5.availabilityofinorganicsubstancessuchasminerals6.supplyofgasessuchasoxygen,carbondioxide,andnitrogen7.pH\n**Eachofthepriorlistedabioticfactorsvariesintheenvironmentand,assuch,mayactasalimitingfactor,determiningthetypesoforganismsthatexistinthatenvironment.\nSomeexamples:1.Alowannualtemperaturecommontothenorthernlatitudesdeterminesinpartthespeciesofplantswhichcanexistinthatarea.2.Theamountofoxygendissolvedinabodyofwaterwillhelpdeterminewhatspeciesoffishlivethere.3.Thedryenvironmentofdesertregionslimitstheorganismsthatcanlivethere.\n\nCarryingCapacitythemaximumnumberoforganismstheresourcesofanareacansupportThecarryingcapacityoftheenvironmentislimitedbytheavailableabioticandbioticresources,aswellastheabilityofecosystemstorecycletheresidueofdeadorganismsthroughtheactivitiesofbacteriaandfungi.\n\nSteadyState-thisoccurswhenthepopulationremainsrelativelyconstantoveranumberofyears.Thiswilloccurwhenthenumberofbirthsequalsthenumberofdeaths.\nBioticfactors:allthelivingthingsthatdirectlyorindirectlyaffecttheenvironment**Thus,theorganisms,theirpresence,parts,interaction,andwastesareallbioticfactors.\nNutritionalRelationships:Autotrophs:cansynthesizetheirownfoodfrominorganiccompoundsandausableenergysourceB.Heterotrophs:canNOTsynthesizetheirownfoodandaredependentonotherorganismsfortheirfood\nTypesofHeterotrophs:Saprophytes:includethoseheterotrophicplants,fungi,andbacteriawhichliveondeadmatter-AKAdecomposersHerbivores:plant-eatinganimalsCarnivores:meat-eatinganimalsOmnivores:consumebothplantsandmeat\nTypesofCarnivores:Predators:animalswhichkillandconsumetheirpreyScavengers:thoseanimalsthatfeedonotheranimalsthattheyhavenotkilled\nSymbioticRelationships:Symbiosis:livingtogetherwithanotherorganismincloseassociationTypesof(symbiosis):MUTALISMPARASITISMCOMMENSALISM\nCommensalism:oneorganismisbenefitedandtheotherisunharmedex.barnaclesonwhales,orchidsontropicaltrees\n2.Mutualism:bothorganismsbenefitfromtheassociationex.nitrogen-fixingbacteriaonlegumenodules,certainprotozoawithintermites(alsoruminants)\n3.Parasitism:theparasitebenefitsattheexpenseofthehostex.athlete'sfootfungusonhumans,tapewormandheartwormindogs\nFoodChainsandWebs:Ifanecosystemistobeself-sustainingitmustcontainaflowofenergy.Thoselifeactivitiesthatarecharacteristicoflivingorganismsrequireanexpenditureofenergy.\nThepathwaysofenergythroughthelivingcomponentsofanecosystemarerepresentedbyfoodchainsandfoodwebs.Producersconverttheradiantenergyofthesunintothechemicalenergyoffood.\n\nFoodchain:involvesthetransferofenergyfromgreenplantsthroughaseriesoforganismswithrepeatedstagesofeatingandbeingeatenB.Foodweb:Inanaturalcommunity,theflowofenergyandmaterialsismuchmorecomplicatedthanillustratedbyanyonefoodchain.\nFOODCHAIN\nSincepracticallyallorganismsmaybeconsumedbymorethanonespecies,manyinteractionsoccuralongthefoodchainsofanycommunity.\nFoodWebInteractions:Producers:(plants)--theenergyofthecommunityisderivedfromtheorganiccompoundsinplants-(grassinthewebabove)\nPrimaryConsumer:(alwaysaherbivore)-feedsonplants(mice,grasshoppers,andrabbitsinthewebabove)\nSecondaryConsumer:(alwaysacarnivore)--feedsuponotherconsumers(frogs,sparrows,snakes,andfoxesabove)(Thehawkisasecondaryor3rdlevelconsumerdependingontheavailabilityoffood.)Omnivoresmaybeprimaryorsecondaryconsumers.\nDecomposers:breakdownorganicwastesanddeadorganismstosimplersubstances(ex.bacteriaofdecay)**Throughdecomposition,chemicalsubstancesarereturnedtotheenvironmentwheretheycanbeusedbyotherlivingorganisms.\nEnergyFlow:Energyflowsthroughecosystemsinonedirection,typicallyfromtheSun,throughphotosyntheticorganisms,includinggreenplantsandalgae,throughherbivores,tocarnivores,andfinallydecomposers.\n\nThereisadecreaseintheoverallenergyineachlevelasyoumoveupthefoodweb.Thismeansthatthereismuchmoreenergyintheproducerlevelinafoodwebthanattheconsumerlevels.Also,thismeansthatthereismoreenergyattheprimaryconsumerlevelthanatthesecondaryconsumerlevel.\nEnergyTransfer:Eachconsumerlevelofthefoodpyramidutilizesapproximately10%ofitsingestednutrientstobuildnewtissue.Thisnewtissuerepresentsfoodforthenextfeedinglevel.Yummy!\nTheremainingenergyislostintheformofheatandunavailablechemicalenergy.Eventually,theenergyinanecosystemislostandisradiatedfromtheearth.Thus,anecosystemcannotsurvivewithouttheconstantinputofenergyfromthesun.\n\nBiomass:amountoforganicmatterThedecreaseofenergyateachsuccessivefeedinglevel(trophiclevel)meansthatlessbiomasscanbesupportedateachlevel.Thus,thetotalmassofcarnivoresinaparticularecosystemislessthanthetotalmassoftheproducers.(Apyramidofbiomassillustratesthis.)\nlevelD=producerslevelC=primaryconsumerslevelB=secondaryconsumerslevelA=tertiaryconsumers\nAboveisatypicalrepresentationofaNYStateterrestrialenergypyramid.GREENPLANTSMICESNAKESEAGLES\nSuccession:replacementofpopulationsinhabitatasitmovestowardastablestate(determinedbychangesinplants)\nTheenvironmentmaybealteredinsubstantialwaysthroughtheactivitiesoforganisms,includinghumans,orwhentheclimatechanges.Althoughthesealterationsaresometimesabrupt(ex.Naturaldisasters),inmostcasesspeciesreplaceothers,resultinginlong-termgradualchangesinecosystems.\nEcosystemstendtochangewithtimeuntilastablesystemisformed.Thetypeofecosystemthatisformeddependsontheclimaticlimitationsofagivengeographicalarea.\nPioneerOrganisms:Thefirstorganismstoinhabitagivenlocation(ex.lichensonbarerock)Pioneerorganismsmodifytheirenvironment,thusestablishingconditionsunderwhichmoreadvancedorganismscanlive.(ex.seasonaldiebackanderosion,forexample,wouldcreatepocketsof"soil"inthecrevicesandhollowsofthebarerockinhabitedbythelichen)\n**Eachcommunitymodifiesitsenvironment,oftenmakingitmoredifficultforitselfand,apparently,morefavorableforthefollowingcommunitywhichinfiltratesthefirstcommunityoveraperiodofyears.\nPrimarySuccession:thedevelopmentofplantcommunitiesonnewlyformedhabitatsthatpreviouslylackedplants(ex.alavaflow)\nSecondarySuccession:returnofanareatoitsnaturalvegetationfollowingadisruptionorremovaloftheoriginalclimaxcommunity\nAnexampleofaPRIMARYSUCCESSIONex.(AdirondackBogSuccession)1.waterplantsatpondedge2.sedgesandsedimentsbegintofillpond3.sphagnummossandbogshrubsfillpond(Labradortea&cranberries)4.blackspruceandlarch5.birches,maple,orfir\nAnexampleofaSECONDARYSUCCESSION1.plowedfield2.annualgrasses3.shrubsandbriers4.cherries,alders,andbirches5.climaxcommunity–-NorthernN.Y.(hemlock,beech,maple)-SouthernN.Y.(oak,hickory)\nClimaxCommunityaself-perpetuatingcommunityinwhichpopulationsremainstableandexistinbalancewitheachotherandtheirenvironment**Theclimaxcommunityofaregionisalwaysitsdominantplantspecies.\nAlteredecosystemsmayreachapointofstabilitythatcanlastforhundredsorthousandsofyears.Aclimaxcommunitypersistsuntilacatastrophicchangeofamajorbioticorabioticnaturealtersordestroysit.(ex.forestfires,abandonedfarmlands,floods,areaswherethetopsoilhasbeenremoved)\nAftertheoriginalclimaxcommunityhasbeendestroyed,thedamagedecosystemislikelytorecoverinstagesthateventuallyresultinastablesystemsimilartotheoriginalone.Pondsandsmalllakes,forexample,fillinduetoseasonaldiebackofaquaticvegetationanderosionoftheirbanks,andeventuallyenterintoaterrestrialsuccessionterminatinginaterrestrialclimaxcommunity.FLORA-plantspecies-dominateinthesensethattheyarethemostabundantfoodsources\n**Plantsuccessionisamajorlimitingfactorforanimalsuccession.AnimalSuccession-astheplantcommunitychangessowilltheanimals\n**Climaxcommunitiesareidentifiedbythedominantplantspecies--theonethatexertsthemostinfluenceovertheotherspeciespresent.Competition:occurswhentwodifferentspeciesororganismslivinginthesameenvironment(habitat)utilizethesamelimitedresources,suchasfood,water,space,light,oxygen,andminerals.\n**Themoresimilartherequirementsoftheorganismsinvolved,themoreintensethecompetition.\nCompetitiveExclusionPrincipleIftwodifferentspeciescompeteforthesamefoodsourceorreproductivesites,onespeciesmaybeeliminated.Thisestablishesonespeciespernicheinacommunity.\nNiche(Job):theorganism'sroleinthecommunity,particularlyitsroleinrelationtofoodwithotherspecies.Habitat-aplacewhereaplantoranimalcangetthefood,water,shelterandspaceitneedstolive.\nWoodpeckersmakeholesinthiscactustolive.Whenthewoodpeckersarefinishedwiththishousing,theelfowlandthescreechowlmovein.Theelfowleatsinsectsandthescreechowloccupiesthesamehabitat,buthavedifferentniches.\nIftwospecieshavethesameniche,competitionsetsinresultingin:a)b)\nMATERIALCYCLES**Inaself-sustainingecosystem,materialsmustbecycledamongtheorganismsandtheabioticenvironment.Thusthesamematerialscanbereused.Materialsconstantlyneedtoberecycledfromthelivingandnon-livingenvironmentsothatmaterialscanbereusedbydifferentlivingorganisms.\nCarbon-OxygenCycleinvolvestheprocessesofrespirationandphotosynthesis.Inrespiration,oxygenandglucosearecombinedreleasingenergyandproducingwaterandcarbondioxide.Inphotosynthesiswaterandcarbondioxidealongwiththeenergyfromthesunarecombinedtoproduceglucose(containingenergy)andoxygen.Eachprocesscomplimentstheotherandtheecosystemmaintainsitsbalancedcommunities.\n\nNitrogenCycleNitrates(usedbyplants)BuildplantproteinsEatenbyanimalsmadeintoanimalproteinsPlantsandanimalsdiebacteriadecayAmmonia(NH3)NitrifyingBacteriaNitrates(usedbyplants)\n\nWaterCycleinvolvestheprocessesofphotosynthesis,transpiration,evaporationandcondensation,respiration,andexcretion\n\nEvolutionaryprocesseshaveresultedinadiversityoforganismsandadiversityofrolesinecosystems.Biodiversity--thedifferencesinlivingthingsinanecosystemIncreasedbiodiversityincreasesthestabilityofanecosystem.Increasedbiodiversityincreasesthechancethatatleastsomelivingthingswillsurviveinthefaceoflargechangesintheenvironment.\nMonoculture--plantingonespeciesoverahugeareaMonocultureleavesanareamorevulnerabletopredationordisease.Biodiversityensurestheavailabilityofarichvarietyofgeneticmaterialthatmayleadtofutureagriculturalormedicaldiscoverieswithsignificantvaluetohumans.(Ifthisislostwelosethesourcesofthesematerialsfordiscovery)Biodiversityaddsaestheticqualitiestotheenvironment.\nBiomesoftheEarth:BIOME-alargegeographicalcommunitythathasaparticulartypeofClimaxcommunity(adominanttypeofplant(flora)andanimal(fauna)life).\nAquaticBiomesAquaticbiomesrepresentthemarineecosystemonEarthCharacteristics:Temperaturesdonotvaryasmuchaslandbiomes(waterabsorbsandreleasesheat)Organismsmustmaintainwaterbalance\nTherearetwotypesofAquaticBiomes:MarineBiomes-OceansSaltwaterComposes70%oftheearthssurfaceContainsmanydifferentorganismsProvidesmostoftheearthsfoodnutrientsMostoxygenisproducedhereFreshwaterBiomes-ponds,lakes,riversandstreams\nExploretheWorldAroundYou!Biomes\nWhatisaHabitat?Ahabitatisaplacewhereaparticularanimalorplantspecieslives.Anartificialhabitatisamanmadeplace.ABiomeis\nWhichhabitatsdoyourecognize?DesertRainForestTundraPrairieGrasslandForestMarineZoo\nDesertSuper-dryairLittlerain–lessthan10inchesayearHighdaytimetemperaturesLotsofwindTypicalanimalsincludeinsects,reptiles,birds,andvariousmammals\nRainForestTheRainForestismadeof3layersThefirstlayeristhecanopyThesecondlayeristheunderstoryThethirdistheforestfloorTheRainForestcontainsabout45%ofallanimalspecies\nTundraExtremelyshortgrowingseasons(6to10weeks)Long,cold,darkwinters(6to10months)LowPrecipitationSnowprovidesinsulationWildlifeincludesbirds,reindeer,foxes,bears,seals,andwalruses\nPrairieTemperaturesvarysummertowinterModeraterainfallSeasonaldroughtandoccasionalfiresTypicalanimallifeincludesjackrabbits,deer,foxes,coyotes,birds,andmanyotherspecies\nSavannahWarm,hotclimatesMajorvegetationisgrassDryandrainyseasonsSeasonalfireshelpmaintainbalanceTheSavannahishometovariousreptiles,rodents,birds,andlargemammalssuchaselephants,andzebras\nForestCovers1/3oftheEarth’sareaDominatedbytreesandwoodyvegetationPrecipitationisdistributedevenlythroughouttheyearAnimallifeincludesmanythingssuchasbears,deer,androdents\nMarineWatercoversnearly75%oftheEarth’ssurfaceTherearenumerousspeciesofplansandanimalswholivehere.Theserangeinsizefrommicroscopicorganismstothesizeofa100ftwhale.\nZooAplacewherepeoplekeepanddisplayanimalsAmanmadehabitatZoosareimportantfor3majorreasonsRecreationandeducationWildlifeconservationScientificstudies\nProtectthewonderfulworldaroundyou!Remembereachhabitatisauniqueplacewhereplantsandanimalsmaketheirhome.WesharethisPlanetwiththem…….itisnotonlyours!WeholdthefutureofthisbeautifulPlanetinourhands.Ourfutureandourchildren’sandtheirchildren’sfuturedependsontheenvironmentalchoiceswemaketoday…..MAKETHERIGHTONES!!!!!!It'sUpToYou\nDisruptionofExistingEcosystemsUrbanization-growthofcitieshasdestroyedlandandwetlandsruiningnaturalhabitats\nImportationofOrganisms-Organismswithoutanyknownpredatorsinourareahaveaccidentallybeenbroughttothissideoftheworld.Examples:Japanesebeetles,GypsyMoths,Dutchelmdisease.Sincetherearenownaturalenemiesfortheseorganisms,theyhavereproducedatarapidrateandhavecausedalotofdamagetoplantsandcrops.\nPoorfarmingpractices-overuseoffields,overgrazingbyanimalsanderosionofland.Whencropsareharvested,theplantswhichcontainessentialnutrientsthatshouldbereturnedtothesoilarealsotakenaway.Thereforethegroundislessfertileandwilleventuallynotbeabletosupportcrops.\nMisuseofPesticides-Theuseofpesticideshasdisruptedfoodchains.Examples:DDThaskilledbeneficialinsects.DDTdoesnotbreakdownandeventuallybecomesconcentratedatdangerouslevelswithinthesoil.\nHUMANECOLOGY\nNaturalEcosystemProcessesNaturalecosystemsareinvolvedinawidevarietyofnaturalprocessesinfluencinghumansandotherorganisms.Theactivitiesofhumansintheenvironmentarechangingmanyofthesenaturalprocessesinaharmfulfashion.\nMaintenanceofatmosphericqualityHumanactivities(namelyUrbanization&IndustrialGrowth)haveincreasedtheamountofPollutantsintheatmosphere,negativelyaffectingtheenvironment(acidrain)\n\nGenerationofsoilsAgriculturalpracticeshaveexposedsoiltotheweatherresultingingreatlossoftopsoil.\nControlofthewatercycleThecuttingofforestsandotherhumanactivitieshaveallowedincreaseduncontrolledrunoffleadingtoincreasederosionandflooding.\nRemovalofWastesUntreatedsewagewastesandrunofffromfarmsandfeedlotshaveledtoincreasedwaterpollution.\nEnergyFlowSomeindustriesandnuclearplantshaveaddedthermalpollutiontotheenvironment.  ThereleaseofsomegasesfromtheburningoffossilfuelsmaybeslowlyincreasingtheEarth'stemperature. --(GreenhouseEffect)\nMajorGreenhouseGasesCarbonDioxide(CO2)Methane(CH4)Otherman-madegases\n\nNutrientRecyclingTheuseofpackagingmaterialwhichdoesnotbreakdown,burningofrefuse,andtheplacingofmaterialsinlandfillspreventsthereturnofsomeusefulmaterialstotheenvironment.\nHumanshavechangedmanyoftheseecosystemprocesses--frequentlyinadetrimentalway\nHumanPopulationGrowth\n1.Thetotalpopulationofhumanshasrisenatarapidrate,partlybecauseoftheremovalofnaturalchecksonthepopulation,suchasdisease.2.Theearthhasfiniteresources,increasinghumanpopulationandconsumptionplacesseverestressonnaturalprocessesthatrenewsomeresourcesanddepletethoseresourceswhichcannotberenewed.\nAlessononoverpopulation….-KaibabNationalForest-Arizona-deer1906-Stablepopulationof4,000deer-Bountywasplacedontheirpredators(1906-23)deerpopulationswellsandovergrazingbegins--over6,000predatorskilled(1924-25)ofthe100,000deerpresent--over75%die-chieflyofstarvation&malnutrition1939-Fewerthan10,000deerremained\nThemoralofthestory…Destructionofnaturalenemiesisnotalwaysgoodforaspecies--itcanleadtoitsextinctionornearextinction.(WillthisalsohappentoHomosapiens?)\nSomespecifichumaninfluencesonEcosystemFactorsA.Increasingnumbers:resultsfromanincreasedhumanlifespanhealthadvanceslargelyledtothis\nB.Food:shortagesandinadequatenutritionleadtostarvationandmalnutrition-populationgrowthisoutpacingfoodproductioninmanyworldregions-starvation:bodylackssufficientcaloriesformaintenance-malnutrition:dietlacksspecificsubstancesneededbythebody\n\nC.Soil:muchlossoffertiletopsoilduetoerosionandpoormanagementtheuseofbiocideshascontaminatedthesoil(nopriorassessmentwastakenoftheirenvironmentalimpact)somecausesoftopsoillossinclude;cuttingforests,farmingdrygrasslands,dammingrivers,drainingwetlands,etc.muchvaluablefarmlandhasbeenlostduetoincreasingurbanization&suburbanization\n4.Water:cuttingforestshasledtoincreased,uncontrolledrunoffwaterpollutionleaveswaterunfitforuseandthelivingthingsremaininginitunfitforconsumption(typicalwaterpollutantsincludephosphates,heavymetals,andPCB's)\nBiomagnificationincreaseintheconcentrationofasubstance(poison)inlivingtissueasyoumoveupthefoodchain(ex.tunaandswordfish,waterbirdsandbirdsofpreyfromDDT--thinshelledeggs)Thishasparticularlyhurttheperegrinefalcon&baldeagle.\n5.Wildlife:muchdestructionanddamagehasbeendonetomanyspecies(hunting,fishing,etc.)ex.passengerpigeon,dodo,greatauk,bison,Carolinaparakeet\n**Otherproblemsincludehabitatdestruction,importationofsomeorganismshavecausedproblemsfornativeorganisms.WehavealieninvasivespecieswhichhavecausedproblemsforourareainNewYork.TheseincludetheWaterChestnut,EurasianWatermilfoil,Alewife,ZebraMussel,andPurpleLoosestrife.\nRemembertheSimpsonepisodewhereBartcallsAustraliatoseewhichwaythetoiletflushes?Hebringswithhimafrogandittakesoverthecountryandonthewayhome,akoalahandsontotheSimpson’shelicopter!\n6.FossilFuels:arebecomingrapidlydepleted/addtoairpollutionproblemsThesearchanddemandforadditionalenergyresourcesalsoimpactecosystemsinanegativeway.Industrializationhasbroughtanincreaseddemandforanduseofenergy.\n7.Nuclearfuels-environmentaldangersexistinreferencetoobtaining,using,andstoringthewastesfromthesefuels\n8.AirisbecomingincreasinglypollutedAcidRain--sulfurdioxide(alsonitrogenoxides)fromcoalburningsources+rain=ACIDRAIN\nProblemsfromAcidRain:DestructionoflimestoneandmarblemonumentsduetoincreasedchemicalweatheringAcidificationofaquaticecosystemsdestroyingthelifeinthemDamageforestsandotherplantsinavarietyofways\n\n9.Livingspace/availableland:isgreatlydecreasingasaresultofincreasingpopulationcreatesincreasingstressonindividualhumanswearealsotakinguplivingspaceandresourcesneededbyotherorganisms\n10.Forests:arebecomingincreasinglydepletedasaresultoftimberneeds&theneedformoreagriculturallandthedirectharvestingoftimberhasdestroyedmanyforeststhisdestructionalsoimpactslanduseandatmosphericquality\n11.Insects:ourchiefcompetitorsforfoodwehavedestroyedmanybeneficialinsectsandmanyenemiesofharmfulinsectswithinsecticides\n12.Landuse(includesincreasingurbanizationandthecultivationofmarginallands)thisdecreasesthespaceandresourcesavailabletootherspecies\nSomeOtherFactorswhichinfluenceenvironmentalquality1.Populationgrowthanddistribution2.Capacityoftechnologytosolveproblems3.Economic,political,ethical,andculturalviews\nSomeexamples:a.)Wealthypeopleinthedevelopedworldtendtohavefewerchildren.b.)SomecountrieslikeChinahavelawsconcerningthenumberofchildrenacouplemayhavewithoutpenalty.c.)Insomepoorculturesinthirdworldcountries,havingmanychildrenisseenasameansofhavingeconomicsecurityinoldage.**Whataresomewaysweareattemptingtodealwithenvironmentaldegradation?\nSpeciesPreservationSomeeffortstosustainendangeredspecieshaveincludedhabitatprotection(wildliferefugesandnationalparks)andwildlifemanagement(gamelawsandfisheries).Animalswhichwereonceendangeredbutarepresentlysuccessfullyreproducingandincreasingtheirnumbersarethebison,graywolvesandegrets.\n\nEndangeredanimalswhicharecurrentlyrespondingtoconservationeffortsandbeginningtomakeacomebackarethewhoopingcrane,baldeagle,andperegrinefalcon.**Thefutureofmanyspeciesremainsindoubt.Humanactivitiesthatdegradeecosystemsresultinalossofdiversityinthelivingandnonlivingenvironment.Theseactivitiesarethreateningcurrentglobalstability.\n\nWaystoReduceAirPollution1.Usefuelswhichcontainlesspollutant,suchaslowsulfurcoalandoil.2.Utilizeindustrialorenergyproducingprocesseswhichminimizethecreationofpollutants.3.Removepollutantsbyusingsuchdevicesasafterburnersorcatalyticconvertersbeforetheyentertheair.4.Designnewproductswhichmeetbasicneedswithoutgeneratingpollution.\n**Therearelawswhichregulateandguidetheuseofnaturalhabitats.SEQR(NewYork'sStateEnvironmentalQualityReviewAct):ANewYorkStatelawdesignedtoprovidetheopportunityforcitizenreviewandcommentoftheenvironmentalimpactofanyproposeddevelopmentthathasbeendeterminedtohavesignificantimpactontheenvironment.\nSomeMethodsofControllingHarmfulInsectsChemicalcontrols(insecticides)(manydrawbacks)\n2.Biologicalcontrols:Introductionofnaturalenemies(ex.prayingmantis)Useartificialsexhormonestolureinsectstotheirdeath(pheromones)(ex.gyplure--malegypsymoths)Sterilizationandreleaseofmaleinsects(ex.irradiationofscrewwormflyw/cobalt-60)Note:Thescrewwormflyonlygetstomateonce,sosheisoutofluckifshemateswithasterilemale!!\nInspectionofallmaterialsbeforeenteringthecountrytopreventpestintroduction.Destroybreedingplacesofinsects(mayhavenegativeenvironmentalconsequencesonotherspecies)Rotatecropssothatharmfulinsectspeciescannotbuildinnumbersandconcentrateondestroyingonecrop.Planthetimeinplantingcertaincrops.(ex.plantcottonearlysothatitsflowersmaturebeforethebollweevillayseggsinthecotton)\nHowcanindividualandsocietalchoicescontributetoimprovingtheenvironment?\n1.Throughagreaterawarenessandapplicationofecologicalprinciples,eachindividualcanhelptoassurethattherewillbesuitableenvironmentsforsucceedinggenerationsonourplanet.\n\n2.Individualsinsocietymustdecideonproposalswhichinvolvetheintroductionofnewtechnologies.Thesedecisionsmustassessenvironmentalrisks,costs,benefits,andtrade-offs.